Wednesday, November 27, 2019

Paris Essays

Paris Essays Paris Essay Paris Essay A weekend trip was spent in the great city of Paris touring, eating French food and experiencing a new culture. Our first night in Paris we went out to eat at a restaurant where every student tried something new. Ranging from eating raw meat, also known as Tartare in France, to eating a rocket salad, we all enjoyed sharing and taste testing the unfamiliar supper creations. The next day we went on a walking tour. The tour guide was great and full of historical information which hearing the stories made the tour even more interesting. He took us to the Pont Neuf, which is the oldest standing bridge in Paris. Another famous bridge he brought us across was the Pont des Arts. The bridge is known for its locks of love. All across the bridge couples place a lock on the bridges fence wall to symbolize their commitment to one another. The bridge is also famous for a non-sentimental reason as well. The Pont des Arts is the bridge that the father in the 2008 movie Taken was captured jumping off of! We went and toured the Notre Dame but unfortunately could not clime to the top due to the cold rainy weather conditions outside. When we arrived at the Louvre our tour guide informed us it was originally the Palais du Louvre which housed the royal estate until Louis XIV felt it was not good enough and built the Palace of Versailles. The Louvre museum was enormous with many different eras and types of art to view. We had a unanimous vote, however, that seeing the â€Å"Mona Lisa† was by the far the best artwork in the place, mainly because it is such a famous piece of history. At nightfall we headed to the Eiffel Tower. All we could do was stand in awe at the beautiful architecture. The lights on the tower were on and once every hour they would put on a light twinkling show. Unfortunately because of the time we arrived they were no longer letting people go up past the second floor of the tower but the view was still indescribable. The final day before boarding the train back to Germany we went to the Palace of Versailles. This place was by far the most stunning sight in Paris. The Palace itself was very big and everything about it was remarkable. The palace had a large garden that you could easily spend hours in. The entire Paris weekend was so full of beauty and history that we have never seen anything like it and it is a place we will surely never forget.

Saturday, November 23, 2019

Achillobator - Facts and Figures

Achillobator - Facts and Figures Name: Achillobator (combination Greek/Mongolian for Achilles warrior); pronounced ah-KILL-oh-bate-ore Habitat: Plains of central Asia Historical Period: Late Cretaceous (95-85 million years ago) Size and Weight: About 20 feet long and 500-1,000 pounds Diet: Meat Distinguishing Characteristics: Large size; huge claws on feet; odd alignment of hips About Achillobator As far as paleontologists can tell, Achillobator (the name, Achilles warrior, refers both to this dinosaurs large size and to the large Achilles tendons it must have had in its feet) was a raptor, and thus in the same family as Deinonychus and Velociraptor. However, Achillobator does appear to have possessed some quirky anatomical features (mainly concerning the alignment of its hips) that differentiated it from its more famous cousins, which has led some experts to speculate that it may represent an entirely new type of dinosaur. (One other possibility is that Achillobator is a chimera: that is, it was reconstructed from the remains of two unrelated dinosaur genera that happened to be buried in the same location.) Like other raptors of the Cretaceous period, Achillobator is often depicted as sporting a coat of feathers, underlining its close evolutionary relationship with modern birds. However, this is based not any solid fossil evidence, but the presumed featheriness of small theropod dinosaurs at some stage during their life cycles. In any case, at up to 20 feet long from head to tail and 500 to 1,000 pounds, Achillobator was one of the largest raptors of the Mesozoic Era, exceeded only in size by the truly gigantic Utahraptor (which lived halfway around the world, in early Cretaceous North America) and making the much smaller Velociraptor seem like a chicken by comparison.

Thursday, November 21, 2019

Supply Management Discussion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Supply Management Discussion - Essay Example It is only when these processes become difficult to undertake the problem of managing comes within the related equations. What I can propose to the IT Vendor Management is to offer them solutions which will cut back on the delays that are happening within the fore of the department and thus the lags are cropping up for all the wrong reasons. There is reason enough to believe such a premise because it promises quite a lot of understanding and comprehension on the part of the Vendor Management policy decisions and the related undertakings. My role as Manager is magnanimous because it has to pinpoint the exact need which will ascertain as to how the Vendor Management processes would be completed, and before that there is a necessity that any predicaments that come about, like delays within the hiring process, are taken care of immediately. This will make sure that the anomalies within the Vendor Management system are resolved in an amiable fashion. 2 This scenario is a classical example of a company going haywire even though it has made a name for itself within the global markets. HP is such a big name within the printer industry that it has almost become generic. The people associate HP with printers of all sorts, sizes and types. This is the reason why HP is easily adopted by people from different regions of the world and without any hindrances coming to the fore. This is irrespective of the cultural and racial tangents that have been much discussed about. What is important to understand is the fact that the company is doing all it can to make sure that the Supply Chain operations are in line with the different departments which are working under the aegis of HP itself. This will enable HP to have a single-minded business philosophy – to make sure that HP’s products remain supreme more than anything else (New, 2011). Also this will set the ball rolling as far as comprehending how new technological innovations and inventions could easily be decipher ed by the people no matter where they live or what kind of computer (and technological) usage they have within their ranks. Every organization goes through such instances of organizational and cultural issues once in a while, and it is only natural for a Manager like me to take pains with worries of these sorts. What I need to do in the meanwhile is to make sure that the company remains steadfast on to its most basic goals and objectives, and that there are no hiccups within these realms at all. 3 As the National Sales Manager for this pharmaceutical company, I am completely in the loop for the upgrade towards iPad 2 which is a must-have as far as the sales force realms are concerned. They need to be assured that their sales-related tasks and undertakings will not be hampered if they stick to iPad for the meanwhile. However, it is quintessential that they are given a focus test group, which is similar to how they were tested when they were allotted the new iPads. Since the element o f criticality is attached with the provision of iPads and iPad 2s, it is important that I initiate the process of the focus test groups – the sooner the better it will be for the sake of the organization. Also the fact that there is a contract in place with the iPads, it will make the task of not only my own self but also the ones working under me and with me very easier. There would be lesser predicaments that will come to the fore once the sales force is given

Tuesday, November 19, 2019

Organization Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Organization Development - Essay Example It is understated but valuable. It explains that organizational change involves unfreezing, then transformation and, finally, refreezing. The first step is the point at which an organization realizes its need for change. In the second step, the transformation occurs. After the changes in the organizational development have actually occurred, then the last step is where the changes are incorporated into the organization’s routine. Another theory is called the action-research model. In this model, the organizational development comes through identifying the problem. This involves developing a hypothesis and then data are analyzed. This theorem looks like it is recurrent in nature. It is cyclical. This means it can happen repeatedly during the process of change of the organization (van Aken & Berends, 2007). Another theory about organizational development is called the general system theory. It explains and emphasizes the importance of the organization’s external environment. It seems to suggest that an organization takes something from its environment, transforms it, and then gives it back to the environment when it has been changed. It describes the symbiotic relationship between an organization and its environment. It then becomes clear that the atmosphere of an organization is dynamic. This applies to both internal and external environments of an organization. Ideally, there is not a single moment when an organization is not looking for a solution, as real life is highly dynamic. This also describes the market place. When an organization unfreezes, its starts looking for how it can change a prevailing condition. According to van Aken & Berends (2007), this happens in search of a solution. An organization identifies a problem which hitherto has been a solution to another previous problem. In other words, before unfreezing, the organization had the same conditions because

Sunday, November 17, 2019

Sugary Drinks Essay Example for Free

Sugary Drinks Essay Beverages are different types of drinks made for human consumption to quench thirst. Sugary drinks or soft drink is one type of beverage, which is added with sugar such as Coca Cola which is a common soft drink. Energy drinks are also known as sugary drinks. Sugary drinks have many reasons for and against regulating it. Although sugary drinks are in favor of many people, it is also important to note that it is in opposition to others in a nation at large which gives use to the question of whether sugary drinks should be regulated or not. This essay will discuss the reasons why the government should not and should regulate sugary drinks. To begin with, a reason against regulating sugary drinks is that it generates employment opportunities for the nation. Sugary drinks companies will need a high manual labor component in its various manufacturing process, therefore locals based near the factory are mostly recruited. For instance, as shown in the annual reports, â€Å"Coca Cola Amatil Limited employs approximately fifteen thousand people across the group† (Coca Cola Amatil Limited 2013, p. 75). Ultimately, unemployment rate in an economy is maintained which further leads to economic growth. In addition, alongside employment, a few sugary drinks are beneficial for the people. Such drinks are energy drinks which contain vitamins and proteins in it such as Powerade, V-drink and Mother. Players consume these energy drinks while training, before playing and also after playing to be energized. In the case of Fiji Marist 7s tournament, â€Å"Coca Cola Amatil Limited providing the Powerade dinks that replenishes electrolytes, carbohydrates and vitamins during physical activity† (Kumar 2013, p. 45). Hence, sugary energy drinks are highly valuable for the strength of the players. Furthermore, choice of drinks is sighted as a personal right. Every citizen of a country has the full rights and freedom to choose what they want to consume regardless of the drawbacks. In other words, a person cannot be turned away from others decisions. To illustrate, according to David, â€Å"I criticize Conly’s defense of the soft drink ban and offer my own view of the justification for paternalise food and beverage policies† (Resnik 2014). Therefore, choosing between the various types of drinks to consume is entirely dependable on a person itself. However, there is another side to this argument. It is evenly important to recognize the arguments against regulating sugary drinks. This essay discusses the arguments against sugary drinks. Equally, a major reason for regulating sugary drinks is to prevent non-communicable diseases among children. Daily consumption of sugary drinks leads to weight gain, poor diet and health and tooth decay in children. Meanwhile, there is less control of sugar level which leads to diabetes. Children are too young to suffer from such non-communicable diseases. For example, A thoughtful redesign of a school environment with changes to school dietary options, implementation of reduction of access to sugary soft drinks resulted in a deadline in the prevalence of overweight from 20. 8% in the 2004-2005 school years to 20. 4% in 2005-2006 (Environmental Health Perspective 2009, p. 159). Thus, making amendments to access of sugary drinks in schools will avert non-communicable diseases. Moreover, another reason for regulating sugary drinks is to reduce pollution in an economy. A greater manufacturing process of soft drinks in a factory produces toxic wastes into the community which harms the lives of the people living near the factory. This includes environmental as well as marine pollution. It can cause skin rashes, ulcers and respiratory problems. Also, food from marine sources will affect the health such as upset stomach. An example would be that â€Å"The Non Government Organization found high levels of toxic chromium and other pollutants in the soil and water around five Coca Cola and Pepsico plants in northern India† (Googleschorlar 2010). Thus, regulating sugary drinks reduces the risks of ones life that is affected by pollution. Finally, regulating sugary drinks helps a government minimize its health care costs. Higher health care costs directly cause increase in health insurance, hence minimizing the costs, helps the government use the remaining funds in the other ministry departments. As revealed by the Vice President of Fiji, Ratu Joni Madraiwiwi, in a recent announcement that â€Å"the government expenditure has steadily increased over the years to an alarming level and at a cost of two million dollars to health services† (International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management 2007, p. 538) As a result, the expenditures of the government need to be adhered to and decreased. In conclusion, the essay discussed the reasons for and against sugary drinks and why the government should not and should regulate it. In contrast, regulating sugary drinks are more important. Regulating sugary drinks is of more importance because it creates non-communicable diseases, pollution and adds costs to the health care system. The government should make sure that its citizen is ardent in taking care of their health. If the public continues to limit their consumption of sugary drinks, then the nation would be able to combat the tribulations of sugary drinks.

Thursday, November 14, 2019

The Urgent Need for Internet Censorship Essay -- Argumentative Persuas

The Urgent Need for Internet Censorship       With the increasing popularity of the Internet, especially among children, parents and others have been concerned that young people have easy access to a wide range of pornography available online. They have pointed out that it is a relatively easy maneuver for children to call up salacious material at home or in libraries--simply by searching for key words like "porn" or "sex." The purpose of this paper is to amplify on this subject of the need for regulation of the Internet.    In February of 1996 Congress passed--and the president signed--the Communications Decency Act, which made it a crime to transmit "indecent" material to minors on line(Communications). But the Supreme Court, at the request of the ACLU, overturned key portions of that law--a move cheered by some civil libertarians and librarians, who argued that restrictions on the Internet amounted to curtailment of free speech. Many objected--and still object--to filtering devices--commercially available software that blocks access to some web sites that contain objectionable material.    They say that it would limit people's ability to have access-- thinking of adults in particular--to have access to information let's say about breast cancer or sexual harassment because they're keyed in on key terminology.    Despite those sentiments, some family groups and lawmakers are still demanding controls over what gets on the net. Several Internet industry leaders--hoping to head off legislation or strict regulation--announced their own voluntary plan to limit what is available to minors.    The Center for Democracy & Technology markets what is called "the Internet tool kit" which allows parents and u... ...etter.    Ultimately, the burden is on the parents, and I think that's the message that these companies want to give. There is a responsibility--it's implicit upon these companies that these companies generally accept that it's up to them to let parents know that this stuff is out there, and it's up to them to make it easy enough so even an adult can use. One very big problem is that kids, by and large, are more conversant in technology than their parents are. So when you talk about a program to keep a child from something on the Internet that a parent has to install, you've got a problem right there because in a lot of households it's the kids who teach the parents how to use it, not the other way around.    WORKS CITED: Communications Decency Act.   http://www.epic.org/CDA/cda.html "US Supreme Court Strikes Down CDA"  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.epic.org/cda/

Tuesday, November 12, 2019

ICT in Logistics Management Essay

Surviving in the competitive nature of the modern-day business environment calls for organizations to be creative and robust enough in securing competitive advantages. For this to be achieved, all aspects within an organization ought to upgraded to counter these challenges while at the same time reducing running costs and delivery time. Logistics management is not an exception to this. Fortunately, technological advancement offers wide range opportunities for firms to improve the functioning of logistical operations. This is because it has become vital for any firm in logistics management to review the working of its logistical processes as key strategy to create a competitive edge. Developments in the business world as well as the rapidly evolving customer preferences has made provision of services and goods a challenging task, since customers prefer to receive better quality products at an even shorter time. While it is still a recent development, Information Communication Technology (ICT) has a lot to offer the logistics industry. The most compelling truth is that ICT is not industry specific but rather is applicable to all types and all sizes of industries. Statistical data shows that a number of firms have already adopted the technology and are already reaping the benefits (Bourlakis & Bourlakis, 2006). Application of the internet, computers and information communication systems into various aspects of logistics management such as procurement, warehousing, transportation and inventory management has been shown to be highly beneficial. As business operations change with the changing consumer markets, businesses are pursuing opportunities by integrating, coordinating, collaborating and cooperating with respect to the supply chain management. It is essential that businesses work together to benefit from collective advantages resulting from working as a chain rather than a single entity. This calls for effective information sharing and this is only capable with the application of ICT. However, the most challenging task for firms then is to identify the best ICT model that fits their logistical processes.

Sunday, November 10, 2019

Nora in Ibsen’s “A Doll’s House” Essay

Throughout history, the role of gender equality has been viewed with varying degrees of importance by societies. People are quick to identify and label a ‘rebel’ as the one who goes against all the moral convictions and different ‘normalities’ of each society. The definition of rebel is listed as â€Å"someone or something that resists any authority or control. † In the context of society, the control which is resisted by the rebel can be no other than the stereotypes of that particular society, a feature which can be directly linked to the oppression of women and their desires and aspirations under standardised conditions and circumstances. Can the rebellious attitudes of women be condemned, ignoring the discontent of these women? Also, should their happiness become repressed, giving way to self-sacrifice and the forfeiting of their desires? It is these issues which Medea and Nora are faced with, and in each case we can see that their decision to go against the stereotypes of the eras are perhaps indicative of the predominance of their own desires and dreams over the notion of self-sacrifice. Thus we can see that both Medea and Nora can be characterised as rebels against the societies they live in. To begin with, Nora has fit into her society quite appropriately. She has married Torvald Helmer, and has three small children. She fulfills her duties as mother and wife with no apparent constraints from happiness. She does indeed thrive on keeping her home as best she can with the limited money she has at her disposal. One example of this is where she has bought Christmas presents for Torvald, all of her children, and even the maids; however she buys nothing for herself. 1 She endures Torvald’s condescending stance towards her, and does not retaliate when he criticizes both her and her father by saying that Nora is â€Å"just like your father – always on the look-out for all the money you can get, but the moment you have it, it seems to slip through your fingers†¦ â€Å"2 The impression we are left with after these first pages is that of Nora being extremely nai ve, and having to be put in her place by Helmer, who does so almost instinctively.

Friday, November 8, 2019

Norovirus and gastrointestinal disease The WritePass Journal

Norovirus and gastrointestinal disease Introduction Norovirus and gastrointestinal disease IntroductionVirologyClassificationStructureBiologyNorovirus Replication StrategyInfectivity of NorovirusEpidemiologyGeographic and Temporal DistributionTransmissionClinical featuresPathogenesisPrevention and controlRecent knowledge on contamination, sanitation and personal hygieneTreatmentHealth impact of Norovirus outbreaks in the coming eraReferencesRelated Introduction Norovirus is currently recognized as the most important non-bacterial pathogen causing gastroenteritis. It is believed that majority of gastroenteritis that occur throughout the globe is attributed to Norovirus. Norovirus was first recognised through immunoelectron microscopy (IEM) in 1972. However, it is only over the past decade that Norovirus has been of great interest to the basic scientists, virologists, epidemiologists and public health experts. There is no doubt that outbreaks or epidemics of Norovirus in the coming years will challenge the medical community to the limit. Globalisation has created a single, very mobile mega-population of people on earth in which more viruses can thrive, and, a highly infectious illness caused by Norovirus can spread rapidly, thus creating epidemics or even pandemics. The potential breakthrough in the development of Norovirus vaccine with the development of effective antigenic viral-like particles (VLP), and the recognition that Norovirus evolv es with antigenic drift will pose exciting challenges to all stakeholders. The other challenges or obstacles which we face include understanding the pathogenesis of the Norovirus in the gastrointestinal tract and identifying the site in the gastrointestinal tract which the virus replicates. This knowledge will hopefully allow the development of targeted antiviral therapy and thus prevent manifestation of severe clinical symptoms. This is a review of this very exciting, virus and I have chosen to amalgamate the current literatures into the following topics: Virology- Classification and structure Biology- Replication and infectivity Epidemiology- Geographic and temporal distribution Transmission Clinical features Pathogenesis Immunity Prevention and control Recent knowledge on contamination/sanitation and personal hygiene Vaccine development Treatments- Current and future Health impact of Norovirus outbreaks in the coming era Virology Classification Although Norovirus was first viewed in 1972, it was not until 1990 when it was classified. Classification of Norovirus could finally be performed due to the successful cloning of the viral genome (1). Molecular cloning and characterisation of Norovirus genome allowed this virus to be classified as a member of Caliciviridae family and it is known as a Group B Biodefense Pathogen. Caliciviruses are small (27-40nm), non-enveloped, icosahedral particles with single-stranded RNA of positive polarity. The name calicivirus comes from the Latin word calyx, meaning â€Å"cup† or â€Å"goblet†, which describes the cup-shaped depression, as observed under electron microscopy. Although they share similar features to that of the picornaviruses, caliciviruses are distinguished from their counterpart by having a larger genome and having distinctive spikes on the surface. Another example of calicivirus is the Hepatitis E virus (2). Currently, there are a few serotypes of Norovirus whic h were successfully identified through immunoelectron microscopy (IEM) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent essay (ELISA), which are represented by Norwalk virus (NV), Hawaii virus (HV), Snow Mountain agent (SMA), Desert Shield virus (DSV) and Southampton virus. (1). Currently, there are five main genogroups of Norovirus being identified (GI, GII, GIII, GIV and GV). Noroviruses, which can be found in humans, are from three genogroups (GI, GII and GIV). However, those that are commonly isolated in cases of acute gastroenteritis in humans belong only to two genogroups (GI and GII), which can then be further divided into genetic cluster or genotypes (i.e GI.1, GII.15, GIV.2 etc). There are now, at least 25 genotypes of Norovirus which were successfully identified, with the prototype Norwalk virus being labelled as GI.1 (Genogroup I, genotype 1) (3) and present within this genotype are numerous subtypes. The presence of this diversity of Norovirus strains are mainly due to both the accumulation of point mutations associated with error-prone RNA replication and to recombination between two related viruses (4, 5).   Genogroup I (GI) includes76 Norwalk virus, Desert Shield virus and Southampton virus and Genogroup II (GII), includes Bristol virus, Lor dsdale virus, Toronto virus, Mexico virus, Hawaii virus and Snow Mountain virus. Norwalk virus (NV), Snow Mountain virus (SMV), and Hawaii virus (HV) are the prototype strains of genotypes GI.1, GII.2, and GII.1 and are the causative agents of an estimated 5%, 8%, and 7% of Norovirus outbreaks, respectively (6). Genogroups III and V (GIII and GV) have only been identified in animals. Structure Through structural studies and visualisation of Norovirus by electron microscopy, it is now proven   that the Norovirus is composed of 90 dimers of the major capsid protein VP1 and one or two copies of the minor structural protein VP2 (7) which recognizes the histo-blood group antigens, which are regarded as receptors and host-susceptibility factors for infection (3). Figure 1. Structure of Norwalk Virus and Genome Non-enveloped, T=3 icosahedral symmetry, about 23-40 nm in diameter. Each virus particle is composed of 180 molecules of VP1 proteins which form 90-arch-like capsomers at all the local and strict twofold axes surrounding the hollows. The proteins in the capsid then folds into two main domains which are, the shell (S) domain and the protruding (P) domain, which contains two further subdomains, P1 and P2. The protruding, P domain functions to increase the stability of the capsid by increasing the intermolecular contacts between the dimeric subunits, thus, leading to speculation that it may control the size of the capsid. However, the S domain contains all the necessary protein requirements to initiate the assembly of the capsid (8). Norovirus has single stranded RNA genome and is predicted to contain three open reading frames (ORF) (9). The Norovirus genome is linear and contains approximately 7600 nucleotides (nt) (Southampton virus-7708nt, Lordsdale virus- 7555nt) (10).   The ORF1 (a polyprotein that contains sequence of amino acid which shows much similarity to that of Picornaviruses) is predicted to encode the capsid protein. ORF1 may be cleaved by 3CL proteases into 6 proteins (11). ORF2 and ORF3 are not shown in the diagram. However, until now, it is not known whether these ORF would be translated or what the function of its translated protein would be. In a recent study, Norovirus- like particles was viewed under atomic force microscopy. Scientist exposed the Norovirus-like particles in environments with PH ranging from 2 to 10. This range of pH values represents the pH of the natural environment in which Norovirus thrives. The study revealed that the Norovirus-like particles were resistant to indentation of measure of 300 bar at acidic and neutral pH. However, when the Norovirus-like particles were subjected to same indentation at a pH of 10, the capsid failed to regenerate and was irreversibly destroyed (12). All these studies which are still at an early stage will pave the way for further understanding of Norovirus. Biology Norovirus Replication Strategy Progress on understanding the basic mechanisms of virus replication has been far slower due to the inability to cultivate virus in the laboratory. Therefore, the replication strategy of this virus remains speculative and is presumed that its replication cycle is of a similar manner to that of picornaviruses (2).   As in the picornaviruses, the viral particle will bind to the cell surface receptors. This will result in a conformational change in the viral capsid proteins, and thus, releasing myristic acid (a common saturated fatty acid). This acid then helps in forming a pore in the cell membrane of the host cell and through this tiny hole; the RNA of the virus is injected (101). Once inside the cell, the RNA unwinds and the positive strand RNA genome is replicated through a double-stranded RNA intermediate which is formed using viral RDRP (RNA-Dependent RNA polymerase). Translation by host cell ribosomes is not initiated by the usual 5 G cap; instead it is initiated by IRES (Intern al Ribosome Entry Site). The viral replication cycle is short and it takes approximately 8 hours to complete one cycle of replication. Within 30 minutes after initial infection, cell protein synthesis – essentially the macromolecular synthesis of cell is â€Å"shut off†. Over the next one to two hours there is a loss of margination of chromatin and homogeneity in the nucleus. This is followed by synthesis of the viral proteins. Subsequently, a vacuole appears in the cytoplasm close to the nucleus and this vacuole gradually starts to coalace covering the whole cell. After 3 hour time, the cell plasma membrane becomes permeable and at 4–6 hours the virus particles assemble, and occasionally could be seen in the cytoplasm. At about 8 hours, the dead cell lyses and releases the viral particles (101). Infectivity of Norovirus Studies of the stability and hardiness of Norovirus have been done by experimental infection on humans. As Norovirus is the most important cause of food and waterborne disease, it is not unexpected that it is resistant to inactivation by treatment with chlorine concentrations which is usually used in drinking water (1). Norovirus can retain its infectivity   even after:- i) exposure to pH2.7 for 3 hours at room temperature, ii) treatment with 20% ether at 4 °C for 24 hours, or iii) incubation at 60 °C for 30 min (13). Norovirus can also retain infectivity after freezing (14). Recent reports have shown that through current sensitive antigen detection methods, Norovirus excretion was detected in 90% of ill volunteers. Viral shedding peaks 1-3 days after onset of symptoms, and studies have shown that the viral antigen may be shed for up to 56 days. Shedding of virus can occur in asymptomatic individuals and it can be prolonged in immunocompromised people. Also, antigen shedding can precede illness (15hr after infection and before symptomatic illness) (15). Epidemiology The successful cloning and expression of the Norovirus genome has led to the development of new assays which has allowed various epidemiological studies to be performed. Recent epidemiological studies have indicated that the infection with Norovirus is much more widespread than previously recognised (16). Geographic and Temporal Distribution Norovirus is highly infectious and can be spread easily from one person to another and is the leading cause of epidemic gastroenteritis in both the developed and developing countries. However, this epidemic gastroenteritis is usually mild, thus, differentiating it from infantile gastroenteritis (which is mainly caused by Rotavirus), which is a much more severe, and often life threatening diarrheal illness in infants and young children. Incidence of infection by Norovirus has been detected in all continents, and therefore, it has a global distribution. It has been quoted that in the United States, more than 90% of the outbreaks of gastroenteritis in the community, for which the cause was previously unknown, can now be attributed to Norovirus (2). Infection by Norovirus do occur all year round, however, its incidence is markedly increased during cold weather months (17).   Outbreaks typically occur in group settings such as cruise ships, schools, camps hospitals and nursing home wher e people gather in confined areas (2) and target a number of high risk populations, particularly young children and the elderly, travellers, soldiers and immunocompromised patients or those who are recipient of organ transplant. Every year, up to 1 million people in the UK are thought to be infected by Norovirus (18). If the Norovirus is brought into the hospital environment by someone incubating the infection, then it can easily spread to vulnerable hospital patients and also to staff. It is known to cause large outbreaks of infection in hospital which results in a lot of patients and staff being affected leading to closure of wards in order to prevent further spread. This has posed a huge problem on care provision. Hospitals, therefore, have very strict policies in place to control the spread of Norovirus which will be discussed later. Transmission Humans are believed to be the only host of the human Norovirus. Norovirus is transmitted mainly by the fecal-oral route. However, it can also be transmitted through infected vomitus (3) and there is currently increasing evidence that it can be transmitted through airbourne or fomite transmission (19 20). The infection of Norovirus is enhanced by several features which facilitate their spread. First, it has a low infection dose (approximately 18 to 1000 viral particles) (21) which allow the virus to spread through droplets, person-to-person contact and through environmental contamination. Secondly, excretion of virus in stools continued for several weeks even after recovery, thus, increases the risk of secondary spread which is a particular concern among food handlers and family members (22). Thirdly, the virus is resistant to a wide range of temperatures, chemicals and pH. The virus is able to persist on environmental surfaces and contaminated objects eg   in swimming pools, conta minated drinking water, ice, bakery products and also in raw oysters, fruits and vegetables which are eaten uncooked and cold foods (celery, melon, vermicelli, sandwiches and cold cooked ham) (3). Fourthly, due to the fact that there is a great diversity of Norovirus strains and the lack of long term immunity, it can result in occurrence of repeated infection throughout life. Finally, the Norovirus genome can also undergo mutations, which causes antigenic shift and recombination, which result in evolution of new strains of Norovirus which are capable of infecting hosts. Asymptomatic infections do occur, and such person may be the carriers of some outbreaks. In recent time, there is an increased in outbreaks in military camps and with the elderly who are staying in nursing or shelter homes, and also in hospital settings (19 20). These infections can be catastrophic because of high secondary attack rates, and such outbreaks can last for several months (18). Clinical features An unresolved problem related to transmission of Norovirus is how long an affected individual can stay infectious. Firstly, the incubation period of the virus is 10-51 hours. The main symptoms are sudden onset of vomiting (more common in children) and abdominal cramps (in 37-45% of the cases) followed by watery diarrhoea (more common in adults). The stools usually do not contain any blood or mucus and asymptomatic infection do occur in approximately 1/3 of the population. The duration of symptomatic illness lasts between 1-3 days (28-60 hr) but can last longer (4-6 days) in nosocomial outbreaks (3) and among children younger than 11 years of age (22). In 15% of patients, it lasts longer than 3 days. The illness also lasts longer in immunocompromised patients and in people with chronic illnesses (3). In immunocompetent adults, the course of Norovirus infection is rapid, with an incubation period of 24–48 hours and resolution of symptoms within 12–72 hours (23). The infec tion is usually less severe compared to other diarrheal infection. However, it can lead to dehydration and requires hospitalization, especially among children with an age of 5 yrs and adults, 65 yrs. Fatalities have been reported in relation to outbreaks of gastroenteritis among the elderly in nursing homes (24) and in the United Kingdom, there is an estimate of about 80 deaths from Norovirus every year among people who are older than 64 years of age (25). However, there are usually no long term effects of Norovirus infection and majority of patients recovers fully. Pathogenesis Because of the failure to cultivate the Norovirus in laboratory properly, our knowledge regarding the pathogenesis of Norovirus come mainly from physical, histological and biochemical studies on infected volunteers who took part in surveys. Proximal intestinal biopsy specimens were taken from ill volunteers and histological changes were compared to healthy individuals. Ill volunteers showed broadening and blunting of intestinal villi, crypt cell hyperplasia, cytoplasmic vacuolization and infiltration of polymorphonuclear and mononuclear cells into the lamina propria but the mucosa itself remaining intact. No histological changes were seen in the gastric fundus or in antrum or colonic mucosa (26). The extent of small intestine involvement remains unknown because studies have only examined the proximal small intestine, and the site of replication of the virus has yet to be identified. Studies have shown that small intestinal brush border enzymatic activity (alkaline phosphatase, sucras e and trehalase) were reduced, resulting to steatorrhea (lipids in stools) and transient carbohydrate malabsorption (27). Jejunal adenylate cyclase activity was not elevated (28) and changes in gastric secretion of hydrochloric acid (HCL), pepsin and intrinsic factor have been linked to these histological changes. In addition, gastric emptying was delayed and the reduced gastric motility may result in nausea and vomiting associated with this gastroenteritis. The binding specificity of Norovirus is based on the histo-blood group antigens. These histo-blood group antigens are complex carbohydrates (oligosaccharides) linked to proteins or lipids and are located on the mucosal epithelial of the digestive tracts and are present as free oligosaccharides in saliva and milk (29). The three major families of histo-blood group antigens- ABO, Lewis and secretor families- are involved in the binding of Norovirus (29). Different Norovirus genotypes have different affinity for ABO antigens. For example, GI Norovirus has a higher affinity for blood group antigens A and O whereas GII Norovirus has a higher affinity for blood group antigens A and B (30). The P2 domain on the viral capsid plays a key role in the binding of these Norovirus to the histo-blood group antigens (31). Prevention and control Outbreaks of Norovirus can result in loss of income and significant morbidity because of frequent secondary transmission of the disease. Places which are more prone to Norovirus outbreaks and are of particular concern are normally places with a closed environment such as hospitals, nursing homes, ships and planes. Because Norovirus is highly infectious and spreads easily, and can be spread via asymptomatic individuals, the prevention of Norovirus outbreaks has become a major obstacle and poses a challenge for us. Norovirus can begin with a single common source of contaminated food (i.e. raw oysters, fruits and vegetables) and can rapidly spread like wildfire through person-to-person contact. Stopping an outbreak of Norovirus requires herculean efforts to sterilise   and clean the environment (eg. on cruise ships, camp sites, nursing home, hospital wards or disaster sites), and even then, the epidemics will only subside once the viral pool have been totally eradicated (32,33). No specific methods are available for complete prevention of Norovirus infection or illness due the agent being extremely contagious. Therefore, control efforts are targeted and focused on identifying the source and the subsequent removal of that source (eg, an infected food handler, contaminated water supply or even contaminated food supply, which is often the case with fruits and shellfish- in particular, oysters) which will then reduce the chance of the virus spreading (34). It is advised that ill food handlers should not be able to retain to their job and that strict personal hygiene be enforced among food handlers as they are one of the main causes of outbreaks. However, even under these strict regulations, both measures have shown limited success. The key to stopping the continuous spread of outbreaks is by preventing the secondary spread of the virus which spread through person-to person contact and from contaminated environmental surfaces which normally occur in cruise ships and other institutions. The fact that asymptomatic infection can occur and that the antigen can still be shed 2-3 weeks after exposure need to be kept in mind to facilitate the managing of outbreaks. Methods to manage the outbreak of Norovirus infection will probably improve in the near future as new tests are being carried out in epidemiological research of virus transmission. Recent knowledge on contamination, sanitation and personal hygiene In an outbreak, whether in a hospital or other environment, various methods can be enforced to reduce the spread of Norovirus infection. It is also important to note that Norovirus gastroenteritis, which is highly contagious tend to spread in crowded areas and may be difficult to control, therefore, below, are just a few techniques which can help in controlling this spread. Proper hand washing techniques and washing hands with soap and water is the key to preventing Norovirus from spreading. Note that, alcohol hand gel does not kill the virus entirely, but it may still be useful in areas where water is inaccessible. Also, the efficacy of the alcohol based sanitizers depends on the alcohol type and concentrations as well as the amount of viral particles present (35). * Medical staff and aid workers should clean their hands prior to and after touching any patient but it is particularly important that staffs wash their hands with soap and water after attending to a Norovirus patient to prevent the infection from spreading from one patient to another patient via their hands. Staffs should also be educated about the importance of personal hygiene and about the importance of washing hands. * Visiting relatives of patients in hospitals should also wash their hands with soap and water after visiting a ward which has Norovirus and they should not interact with other patients other than the person they have come to visit. * Staff and visitors should wash their hands before handling food and after visiting the toilet. Hand washing facilities should also be provided especially in high risk areas which are prone to Norovirus infection, such as bathrooms, eating areas, diaper-changing areas and even day care centres. * Proper hand washing techniques (eg. Rub palm to palm with fingers interlaced and rub back of each hand with palm of the other hand with fingers interlaced) should also be advised and encouraged. * Strict personal hygiene among food handlers and aid workers should be enforced to prevent outbreaks of Norovirus. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Isolating patients with the virus. *Patients with Norovirus must immediately be isolated from non-infected patient until their symptoms subside. The infected patient should be placed in a single room, but if there are a few cases of infection on the ward, infected patients should then be nursed in a dedicated bay. If there are a large number of cases, the ward should be close to new admissions. Visiting should also be restricted to prevent visitors getting the infection and thus, preventing the subsequent secondary infection of the disease. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cleaning. *Enhanced cleaning using bleach-containing products are needed to eradicate Norovirus from the environment. Vomit and diarrhoea must be cleaned up immediately and general ward cleaning must be increased. Alcohol based surface disinfectants are usually insufficient. Waste should also be dumped properly in the allocated bins. *Aggressive environmental sanitization by cleaning with proper surface disinfectants and sterilisation of bathroom surfaces, bedding and lines are also essential to decrease secondary spread (32). * Studies have shown that when bleaching agent is used on feline caliciviruses, it can inactivate the activity of the virus. Also, the effect of the bleaching agent is superior compared to that of ammonium compounds or phenols (36). 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Symptomatic people must stay away from hospital. *Staff and visitors who develop symptoms must not come into the hospital and they must remain away from the hospital until they have been free of symptoms for 48-72 hours. Staff must be cleared by occupational health before returning to work. Immunity and Vaccine Developed To develop future vaccines for the prevention of Norovirus infection, the nature of the immunity to Norovirus is of particular importance. In an early study of immunity of the human response system to Norovirus illness, some volunteers who became ill after being exposed to the virus had partial immunity to the disease upon exposure 6 to 14 weeks later, but lost the immunity 27 to 42 months later (37). However, recent studies have shown that these early finding may be inaccurate, since the dose required to infect 50% of volunteers is as low as 18 infectious particles, whereas the dose used in the early study was more than 105 time higher (21). Immunity developed from exposure to a lower dose of Norovirus might be greater and more cross-reactive than immunity against a much higher dose. Therefore, studies on this possibility are still on going. The high incidence of illness caused by Norovirus infections especially among both the young and the elderly have led to some investigations to consider the potential role of vaccines in helping to regulate this infection. The vaccine should be designated towards specific target groups, such as infants (as part of their routine schedule for childhood immunization), the elderly, food handlers, military personnel, travellers, health care workers and nurses in day-care centres (3). The development of vaccines could also play a role in helping to reduce the number of childhood mortality and controlling diarrheal disease in infants. In a recent study, it is noted that 15% of hospitalization of children for diarrhoea in India and 31% in Peru were associated with Norovirus infection (38) and these percentages may be contributing greatly towards the estimated 1.6 million children who die each year from diarrhoea. Nevertheless, recent breakthrough in research has successfully produced Norovir us-like particles (NVLP). These particles have almost identical characteristics to the original Norovirus as it has resistant properties towards acidic pH and is also heat-stable. When these particles are given orally or intranasally to human, it can produce an antigenic effect, stimulating the production of anti-Norovirus antibodies (B and T cell responses) within the human body (39). Therefore, these particles are now being studied, hoping that it could be used as a platform and lead us to discovering a cure one day. However, there are many obstacles towards the development of a vaccine for Norovirus. Firstly, there is certainly a lack of understanding of the physiology of the virus due to the failure to cultivate them in laboratories. Thirdly, there is limited understanding on why individuals cannot develop long term immunity towards the virus. Furthermore, the virus can also withstand a wide range of temperatures and pH thus increasing their survivability. Also, the virus has multiple routes of transmission, and finally, the Norovirus strain is rapidly evolving and mutating, thus, posing a major challenge for us in developing a vaccine, which is much similar to the situation to that of the influenza viruses. Similar to that of the influenza virus, the Norovirus can accumulate point mutation in the outer capsid wall which may result in unique immunoglobulin binding sites (18). Therefore, this antigenic drift will result in the formation of new strains of Norovirus and will require the reformatio n of the vaccines annually (39). Epidemic surveillance using recent updated epidemiological data will allow the identification of predominant strains and identifying a reference vaccine strain each year, similar to the situation of that of the influenza virus (38). Studies on the testing of vaccines are still at an early stage and much work still has to be done. Treatment As discussed above, the symptoms caused by Norovirus are generally mild and self-limited and resolves itself. Currently, there is still no specific treatment for a Norovirus infection apart from letting the infection run its course. Individuals who come down with Norovirus illness do not necessarily need to visit a doctor. Instead, the individual should stay home, to prevent the illness from passing to other people in a community, take paracetamol when necessary to relieve any symptoms or fever and most importantly, oral rehydration, by drinking plenty of water to replace the fluid lost through diarrhoea and vomiting. If an individual is having problems to retain fluids, he/she should try to take in small sips more frequently to ensure one is rehydrated. Rehydration solution can also be consumed to restore all the salts and minerals which were lost during diarrhoea and vomiting. This rehydration solution normally comes in powder form which can then be added with water for drinking. F or individuals who are suffering from severe dehydration, immediate hospitalization is necessary. Fluids should then be given directly into the body by a naso-gastric tube or intravenously. Antimotility agents such as Loperamide may be useful in helping to regulate diarrhoea in individuals with severe symptoms. Opioids are also useful in regulation of diarrhoea by reducing peristalsis. Anti-emetics such as Chlorpromazine, Acepromazine and Metoclopramide may be useful in helping to control vomiting by inhibiting the D2, Dopamine receptors which are found on the chemical trigger zone of the brain. Individuals suffering from Norovirus illness are advised to consume a light diet of foods that are easily digested, such as soup, rice, pasta and bread, but babies should be given their normal feed throughout (102). It has been shown that interferon and ribavirin can effectively inhibit the replication of Norovirus in replicon-bearing cells (40), but their potential therapeutic value needs t o be further investigated. Currently, there are still no anti-viral medications to treat Norovirus. Future research to locate the site of the gastrointestinal tract where the virus replicates may result in development of more specific antiviral therapies targeting the viral replication process. The drugs stated above are only used to control symptoms of Norovirus infection. However, due to the continuous advancement of the field of medicine, all these may change, and once the virus can successfully be propagated in laboratories, studies on them can be conducted which may finally lead us to a cure for Norovirus. Health impact of Norovirus outbreaks in the coming era Norovirus would be with mankind for years to come and even though a vaccine is in the process of being developed, it will require a few more years for it to be perfected. In this era of globalisation, travelling has become a norm in our lives. Every year, it is estimated that approximately 1 billion people travel around the globe for various purposes. Travellers may include tourists, business people, soldiers, refugees, migrants etc. Therefore, from a virus perspective, there will be a linkage of people all around the world with plenty of susceptible individuals which can be infected. For example, through air travel, the virus can be passed on from one continent to another, within a couple of days, and this can result in a pandemic. Currently, travel industry has increased by leaps and bounds. Planned vacations are almost the norm for everyone. Travellers especially vacationers inflicted with Norovirus will almost certainly ruined their travelling plans. On cruise ships or other confined environments, outbreaks of Norovirus can literally bring all leisure activities to a standstill. As global warming continues to be abated, natural disasters like hurricanes, typhoon, and floods appear to be common events. Congregation of people in crowded relief centres, like what happened during the Katrina Hurricane disaster, will form fertile ground for Norovirus to spread. Failure to control the outbreaks will compound the calamites (disasters) and disrupt relief effort. Lastly, as the world is rapidly greying especially in the developed countries, many old aged people will be housed in nursing homes. These confined homes are again sitting duck for Norovirus to strike. As the morbidity and mortality of old people are much worse in Norovirus infection, outbreaks could prove disastrous to these cohorts of greying population. References Richman D D, Whitley RJ Hayden FG Clinical Virology. 2nd ed. Washington: ASM Press; 2002. Levinson W Medical Microbiology Immunology. 8th ed. United States: Lange; 2004. Roger, I. Glass, Umesh, D. Parashar and Mary, K. Estes. Norovirus Gastroenteritis. N Engl J Med 2009;361:1776-85. Nayak MK, Balasubramanian G, Sahoo GC, et al. Detection of a novel intergenogroup recombinant Norovirus from Kolkata, India. Virology 2008;377:117-23. Bull RA, Tanaka MM, White PA. Norovirus recombination. J Gen Virol. 2007;88:3347-59. Fankhauser RL, J. S. Noel, S. S. Monroe, T. Ando, and R. I. Glass. Molecular epidemiology of Norwalk-like viruses in outbreaks of gastroenteritis in the United States. J. Infect. Dis. 1998;178:1571-1578. Michele E. Hardy Norovirus protein structure and function. DOI 2006;10.1016. Bertolotti-Ciarlet A, White LJ, Chen R, Venkataram P and Estes MK. Structural Requirements for the assembly of Norwalk virus-like particles. J. Virol 2002;76:4044-55. Zheng D, Ando T, Frankhauser RL, Beard RS, Glass RI, Monroe SS. Norovirus classification and proposed strain nomenclature. J. Virol 2006;346:312-23. Dingle KE, Lambden PR, Caul EO, Clarke IN. Human enteric Calicivirdae: the complete genome sequence and expression of virus-like particles from a genetic group II small round structured virus. J. Gen. Virol. 1995;76:2349-55. Belliot G, Sosnovtsev SV, Mitra T, Hammer C, Garfield M, Green KY. In vitro proteolytic processing of the MD145 Norovirus ORF1 nonstructural polyprotein yields stable precursors and products similar to those detected in Calcivirus-infected cells. J. Virol. 2003; 77:10957-74. Cuellar JL, Meinhoevel F, Hoehne M, Donath E. Size and mechanical stability of norovirus capsids depend on pH: a nanoindentation study. J Gen Virol. 2010; 91:2499-56. Dolin, R., N. R. Blacklow, H. DuPont, R. F. Buscho, R. G. Wyatt, J. A. Kasel, R. Hornick, and R. M. Chanock. Biological properties of Norwalk agent of acute infectious nonbacterial Cannon RO, Poliner JR, Hirschhorn RB, Rodeheaver DC, Silverman PR, Brown EA, Talbot GH, Stine SE, Monroe SS, Dennis DT and Glass RI. A multistate outbreak of Norwalk virus gastroenteritis associated with consumption of commercial ice.   J. Infect Dis. 1991; 164:860-863. Graham DY, Jiang X, Tanaka T, Opekun AR, Madore HP, Estes MK. Norwalk virus infection of volunteers: new insights based on improves assays. J. Infect. Dis 1994; 170:34-43. Inouye SK, Yamashita SY, Yoshikawa M, Kato N, Okabe N. Surveillance of viral gastroenteritis in Japan: paediatric cases and outbreak incidents. J. Infect. Dis 2000;181:S270-74. Adler JL, and Zickl R. Winter vomiting disease. J. Infect. Dis. 1969;119:668-73. Nilsson M, Hedlund KO, Thorhagen M, et al. Evolution of human caliciviruses RNA in vivo: accumulation of mutations in the protruding P2 domain of the capsid leads to structural changes and possibly a new phenotype. J. VIrol 2003;77(24):13117-24. [PubMed:14645568] Caul EO. Small round structured viruses: airbourne transmission and hospital control. Lancet 1994; 343:1240-41. Chadwick PR, McCann R. Transmission of a small round structured virus by vomiting during a hospital outbreak of gastroenteritis. J. Hosp. Infect. 1994; 26:251-59. Teunis PF, Moe CL, Liu P, et al. Norwalk virus: how infectious is it? J Med Virol 2008;80:1468-76. Rockx B, De Wit M, Vennema H, et al. Natural History of human calicivirus infection: a prospective cohort study. Clinical Infect Dis 2002;35:246-53 Estes MK, Prasad BV, Atmar RL. Noroviruses everywhere: has something changed? Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 2006;19:467-474. Mattner F, Sohr D, Heim A, Gastmeier P, Vennema H, Koopmamns M. Risk groups for clinical complications of Norovirus infections: an outbreak investigation. Clin Microbiol Infect 2006;12:69-74. Harris JP, Edmunds WJ, Pebody R, Brown DW, Lopman BA. Deaths from Norovirus among the elderly, England and Wales. Emerg Infect Dis 2008; 14:1546-52. Levy AG, Widerlite L, Schwartz CJ, et al. Jejunal adenylate cyclase activity in human subjects during viral gastroenteritis. Gastroenterology 1976;70:321-5 Agus SG, Dolin R, Wyatt RG, Tousimis AJ, Northrup RS. Acute infectious nonbacterial gastroenteritis: intestinal histopathology: histologic and enzymatic alterations during illness produced by Norwalk agent in man. Ann Intern Med 1973;79:18-25.   Meeroff JC, Schreiber DS, Trier JS, Blacklow NR. Abnormal gastric motor function in viral gastroenteritis. Ann Intern Med 1980;92:370-3. Marionneau S, Ruvoen N, Le MoullacVaidye B, et al. Norwalk virus binds to histo-blood group antigens present on the gastroduodenal epithelial cells of secretor individuals. Gastroenterology 2002;122:1967-77. Tan M, Huang P, Meller J. Mutations within the P2 domain of Norovirus capsid affect binding to human histo-blood group antigens evendence for a binding pocket. J. Virol. 2003;23:12562-71. Harrington PR, Lindesmith L, Yount B, Moe CL and Baric RS. Binding of Norwalk virus-like particles to ABH histo-blood group antigens is blocked by antisera from infected human volunteers or experimentally vaccinated mice. J. Virol 2002;76(23):12335-43. Yee EL, Palacio H, Atmar RL, Shah U, Kilborn C, Faul M, Gavagan TE, Feigin RD, Versalovic J, Neil, FH, Panlilio AL, Miller M, Spahr J and Glass RI. Widespread outbreak of Norovirus Gastroenteritis among evacuees of Hurricane Katrina residing in a Large â€Å"Megalshelter† in Houston, Texas: lessons learned for prevention. C Dis Cont. 2007;44:1032-39.   Widdowson MA, Cramer EH, Hadley L, et al. Outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis on cruise ships and on land: identification of a predominating circulating strain of Norovirus- United States, 2002. J Infect Dis 2004;190:27-36. [Erratum, J Infect Dis 2004;190:2198.] Baert L, Uyttendaele M, Stals A, et al. Reported foodbourne outbreaks due to Noroviruses in Belgium: the link between food and patient investigations in an international context. Epidemiol Infect 2009;137:316-25. Boyce JM, Pittet D. Guideline for hand hygiene in health-care settings: recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2002;23:S3-40. Duizer E, Bijkerk P, Rockx B, De Groot A, Twisk F, Koopmans M. Inactivation of caliciviruses. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2004;70:4538-43. Parrino TA, Schreiber DS, Trier JS, Kapikian AZ, Blacklow NR. Clinical immunity in acute gastroenteritis caused by Norwalk agent. N Eng J Med 1977;297:86-9. Patel MM, Widdowson M-A, Glass RI, Akazawa K, Vinje J, Parashar UD. Systematic literature review of role of Noroviruses in sporadic gastroenteritis. Emerg Infect Dis 2008;14:1224-31 Kralovetz MH, Mason HS, Chen Q. Norwalk virus-like particles as vaccines. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2010;9(3):299-307. Chang KO, Geroge DW. Interferons and ribavirin effectively inhibit Norwalk virus replication in replicon-bearing cells. J Virol 2007;81:12111-8. Websites Richard H.Replication of Polio, Rhino and other Picornaviruses [Internet]. Available from: pathmicro.med.sc.edu/virol/polio.htm Treating norovirus infection [Internet]. Available from: nhs.uk/Conditions/Norovirus/Pages/Treatment.aspx

Tuesday, November 5, 2019

Hernando Cortez - Spanish Conquistador

Hernando Cortez - Spanish Conquistador Hernando Cortez was born in 1485 into a poor noble family and was educated at the University of Salamanca. He was an able and ambitious student that focused on a military career. With the stories of Christopher Columbus and the land across the Atlantic Ocean he became enamored with the idea of traveling to the territories of Spain in the new world. Cortez spent the next few years working as a minor legal official in Hispaniola before joining Diego Velazquezs expedition to conquer Cuba. Conquering Cuba In 1511 Velazquez’s conquered Cuba and was made governor of the island. Hernando Cortez was a capable officer and distinguished himself during the campaign. His efforts placed him in a favorable position with Velazquez and the governor made him clerk of the treasury. Cortez continued to distinguish himself and became a secretary to Governor Velazquez. During the next few years, he also became a capable administrator in his own right with responsibility for the second largest settlement on the island, the garrison town of Santiago. Expedition to Mexico In 1518, Governor Velazquez decided to give Hernando the coveted position of commander of the third expedition to Mexico. His charter gave him the authority to explore and secure the interior of Mexico for later colonization. However, the relationship between Cortez and Velazquez had chilled over a preceding couple of years. This was the result of the very common jealousy that existed between conquistadors in the new world. As ambitious men, they were continually jockeying for position and were concerned with anyone becoming a potential rival. Despite marrying the sister-in-law of Governor Velazquez, Catalina Juarez the tension still existed. Interestingly, right before Cortez set sail his charter was revoked by Governor Velazquez. Cortez ignored the communication and left on the expedition anyway. Hernando Cortez used his skills as a diplomat to gain native allies and his military leadership to secure a foothold at Veracruz. He made this new town his base of operations. In a severe tactic to motivate his men, he burned the ships making it impossible for them to return to Hispaniola or Cuba. Cortez continued to use a combination of force and diplomacy to work his way toward the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. In 1519, Hernando Cortez entered the capital city with a mixed force of disgruntled Aztecs and his own men for a meeting with Montezuma II the emperor of the Aztecs. He was received as a guest of the emperor. However, the possible reasons for being received as guest vary wildly. Some have reported that Montezuma II allowed him into the capital to study his weakness with an eye to crushing the Spaniards later. While other reasons given relate to the Aztecs viewing Montezuma as an incarnation of their god Quetzalcoatl. Hernando Cortez, despite entering the city as a guest feared a trap and took Montezuma prisoner and began to rule the kingdom through him. Meanwhile, Governor Velazquez sent another expedition to bring Hernando Cortes back under control. This forced Cortez to leave the capital to defeat this new threat. He was able to defeat the larger Spanish force and force the surviving soldiers to join his cause. While away the Aztec’s rebelled and forced Cortez to recapture the city. Cortez with the use of a bloody campaign and a siege lasting eight months was able to retake the capital. He renamed the capital to Mexico City and installed himself absolute ruler of the new province. Hernando Cortez had become a very powerful man in the new world. News of his accomplishments and power has reached Charles V of Spain. The intrigues of the court began to work against Cortez and Charles V was convinced that his valued conquistador in Mexico might set up his own kingdom. Despite repeated assurances from Cortez, he was eventually forced to return to Spain and plead his case and ensure his loyalty. Hernando Cortez traveled with a valuable horde of treasure as gifts for the king to demonstrate his loyalty. Charles V was suitably impressed and decided that Cortez was indeed a loyal subject. Cortez was not awarded the valuable position of Governor of Mexico. He was actually given lower titles and land in the new world. Cortez returned to his estates outside Mexico City in 1530. Final Years of Hernando Cortez The next years of his life were spent quarreling over rights to explore new lands for the crown and legal troubles related to debts and abuses of power. He spent a significant portion of his own money to finance these expeditions. He explored the Baja peninsula of California and afterward made a second trip to Spain. By this time he had fallen out of favor in Spain again and could barely even gain an audience with the king of Spain. His legal troubles continued to plague him, and he died in Spain in 1547.

Sunday, November 3, 2019

The style of mini skirt in 1960s Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The style of mini skirt in 1960s - Essay Example Historically, miniskirts have existed since the onset of civilization. However, they have aroused cultural implication and powerful political connotations in recent years. The origin and sustenance of miniskirts have a deep historical context. This article explores various historical contexts of miniskirts as determined by culture, designer, artist, materiality, and model. Miniskirt strongly communicates the breaking loose from cultural strains that bound the young people to older dress codes. Just like the young generations in 1960s, the modern day youths are driven by the need to be different. Placing things into perspective, miniskirts are among the changes that reflect cultural expression. The cultural context of miniskirts can be understood in three significant perspectives. One is that the world is changing rapidly. In this instance, the adoption of miniskirts can be attributed to some of the changes the world was undergoing at the time. For instance, the television sets were being invented, the cameras were being introduced and diversified functions of computers were being implanted among other changes.2 The Cultural context of miniskirts is also marked by aspects many aspects such as attitude changes to existing fashion. Lifestyles and technological advancements significantly shape the behavior and attitude of many young people. Civil rights, the rights of women and concerns over environment were shaping the minds of various young people. The last dimension of the cultural context of miniskirts is the new cultural expressions. The youths had much money to spend than ever before. Many economies had grown particularly in the stability of the aftermath of WWII. They probably spent a lot of the money they had on clothes. Furthermore, during the time, there were several boutiques, which changed their merchandise often. All those

Friday, November 1, 2019

A Strategy for Devise and Launch of a new Adidas Product Research Paper

A Strategy for Devise and Launch of a new Adidas Product - Research Paper Example The group floated stocks in 1995 under the leadership of Robert Louis-Dreyfus as chairman of the executive board. Presently, Herbert Hainer is in charge of the group. Adidas has a wide and varied history of acquisitions. It was in the year of 1997, the group acquired Salomon Group, thereby changing the name of the group to Adidas-Salomon AG. But in 2005, Adidas decided to part its way with Salomon and changed its name to Adidas AG. The company had a remarkable achievement in 2006 when it acquired Reebok International Ltd. With this takeover materializing, the two of the most reputed brands in the industry expected to have a wide market share with complementary products. The worldwide market of the group includes Europe, North America, Asia-Pacific, and Latin America thus making the company truly multinational (Adidas Group, â€Å"The Adidas Group at a Glance†). The present type of the products of the company includes three broad heads that of footwear, clothing, and accessories. The section of footwear includes shoes and flips flops. A host of items like jackets, jerseys, shirts, shorts, pants and tights, sweatshirts, tracksuits, swimwear, tops, and pants are part of the clothing section. Accessories of Adidas include bags, eyewear, watches, hardware, hats, and stocks, etc (Adidas, â€Å"Catalogue†). Being a market leader of all most all the product segment they are into, Adidas might look into new product line so that the company can get diversified. The development and launch of energy drink can be a viable option for the company. Energy drinks are such drinks which provide more energy to the drinker compared to other drinks. Adidas already has a wide market in the arena of sports with all its existing products. With energy drink in the product category, the company can expect to get more penetration into its core competency.